Grammar
If people cannot write well, they cannot think well, and if they cannot think well, others will do their thinking for them.
George Orwell
SPELLING CHECKER
Eye have a spelling checker,
It came with my pea sea,
It planely marks four my revue
Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.
Eye strike a quay and type a word
And weight for it to say
Weather eye am wrong oar rite-
It shows me strait aweigh.
As soon as a mist ache is made
It nose bee four two long,
And eye kin put the error rite,
It’s rare lea ever wrong.
Eye have run this poem threw,
Eye am shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh
My checker tolled me sew.
Writing Correctly: Saying What You Mean To Say
The best way of getting your message across is through a solid sentence. How can we write an effective sentence? Firstly, read lots of effective sentences in books/newspapers; secondly, practice writing effective sentences yourself.
Be Correct (or Follow the Rules)
This goal of good writing, correctness, is the most difficult because of the confusing rules of standard written English.
Look out for these common errors:
- Subject-verb agreement
- Using modifiers correctly
- Using pronouns correctly
- Parallelism of sentence structure
- Consistency of narrative voice
1. Pay Attention to Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular subjects and plural subjects take different forms of the verb in the present tense. Usually the difference lies in the presence or absence of the final -s (for example, he becomes and they become). Sometimes the difference is more unusual (for example, he is and they are).
Certain situations cause problems:
- When the subject and verb are separated by a number of words
Don’t let the words that come between the subject and the verb confuse you as to whether the subject is singular or plural. Pinpoint the one word that is the grammatical subject of the sentence; make sure the verb, no matter how far from this subject, agrees with the subject in number.
Incorrect:
The joys of climbing mountains, especially if one is a novice climber without proper equipment, escapes me.
Correct:
The joys of climbing mountains, especially if one is a novice climber without the proper equipment, escape me.
- When the subject is an indefinite pronoun
Incorrect:
A group of jockeys who have already finished the race are blocking my view of the horses.
Correct: A group of jockeys who have already finished the race is blocking my view of the horses. (The subject of the sentence is the noun group which takes the singular verb, is.)
Look out for long phrases that come between the subject and the verb. In both cases above, the phrases between the subject and the verb do NOT affect the grammatical relationship between subject and the verb; they do not change the singular subject into a plural one.
Also, watch out for collective nouns, like group, audience, committee, majority; these will almost always take a singular verb. The word number takes a singular verb if preceded by the and a plural verb if preceded by a.
Correct:
A majority of the jury thinks that the defendant is guilty.
A number of fans hope for a glimpse of his handsome face. (plural subject/plural verb)
The number of fans who hope to catch a glimpse of his face seems to grow each day.
- When the subject consists of more than one noun
Keep these rules in mind:
A subject that consists of two or more nouns connected by and takes the plural form of the verb.
Correct: Megumi, who is an expert in cooking Japanese food, and Mayuko, who is an expert in eating Japanese food, have combined their expertise to start a new restaurant.
When the subject consists of two or more nouns connected by or, or nor, the verb agrees with the closest noun.
Correct: Either the teacher or the students are misinformed.
Correct: Either the students or the teacher is misinformed.
Fix or replace incorrect verbs:
- The majority of the organization are over 60 years old.
- Hae Min picked up the blueprints and model that was still on the table instead of the ones that were in the cabinet.
- A case of bananas have been sent to the local distributor already.
- The logical structure of his complicated and confusing arguments are always the same.
- A total of 50 editors read the article, a process that takes at least a week.
- Neither the shipping clerk who packed the equipment nor the truckers who transported it admits responsibility for the damage.
- I can never decide whether to eat an orange or a chocolate; each of them have their own wondrous qualities.
- Both the child and her grandfather was depressed for months on discovering that the oldest ice cream parlor in the city had closed down.
2. Use Modifiers Correctly:
Modifying phrases in a sentence should be placed as close as possible to what they modify. If they are placed too far from the word they modify, the meaning is unclear.
Ambiguous:
Ka and Soo Inn sat talking about the movie at the student center.
They wondered how much the house was really worth when they bought it.
Avoid ambiguity by placing modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.
Clear:
Ka and Soo Inn sat at the student center talking about the movie.
When they bought the house, they wondered how much it was really worth
Be sure that the modifier is closest to the word that it is refers to, and that there is no other word it could possibly refer to on the other side of the modifier.
Ambiguous:
The dentist instructed him regularly to brush his teeth.
Carol said in the car she had a map of Shanghai.
Clear:
The dentist instructed him to brush his teeth regularly.
Carol said she had a map of Shanghai in the car.
Also watch out for Dangling Modifiers: Modifiers meant to modify words or phrases that are not even present in the sentence.
Incorrect: Coming out of context, Peter was startled by Julia’s humor.
The modifying phrase coming out of context is probably not meant to refer to Peter. What came out of context was more likely a remark or a statement made by Julia. There is no word or phrase that can be pinpointed as the word or phrase that the modifying phrase refers to. The sentence is incorrect.
Correct: Julia’s remark, coming out of context, startled Peter with its humor.
Rewrite these sentences placing the modifiers closer to the words they modify.
- Tina advised her quickly to make up her mind.
- I agree with the author’s statement in principle.
- Coming out of the woodwork, he was surprised to see the termites.
- Mr. Linzel said in his classroom he had all the necessary documents.
- Terence remembered he had to place a telephone call when he got home.
3. Use Pronouns Correctly:
Pronoun: a word that re-places a noun in a sentence.
Antecedent: the noun that a pronoun stands for
Every time you use a pronoun in a sentence- he, him, she, her, it, its, they, their, that or which- be sure there can be no doubt what its antecedent is.
Unclear:
The teacher told the student he was lazy. (Does ‘he’ refer to the teacher or the student?)
Sara knows more about Chinese history than Noor because she learned it from her father.
(Does ‘she’ refer to Sara or Noor?)
I would rather settle in Beijing rather than Hong Kong, although it lacks wonderful restaurants. (Does Beijing lack the wonderful restaurants or Hong Kong?)
Clear:
The student was lazy, and the teacher told him so.
Since Sara learned Chinese history from her father, she knows more than Noor does.
I would rather settle in Beijing than in Hong Kong, although Beijing lacks wonderful restaurants.
Avoid using this, that, it or which to refer to a whole phrase or idea:
Unclear: When you are painting, be sure not to get it on the floor.
Clear: When you are painting, be sure not to get any paint on the floor.
Remember a few rules:
- Pronouns ending with -body, -one and -thing are singular (anybody, everyone, something).
Everyone went back to his/her dorm room after dinner.
- The indefinite pronouns both, few, many, several are plural.
Many of the apples and a few of the mangoes remained in the basket.
- Relative pronouns (who, whom, that, which) cause confusion; it may be difficult to know which one of them to use.
Correct: Those people, whom I have been calling all day, never returned my call.
To help you decide, turn the clause into a question. Ask: “I have been calling who or whom?” Answer your question substituting a pronoun like they or them:
“I have been calling them.”
If you answer them, the appropriate pronoun is whom.
Incorrect: Those salespeople, whom have been calling all day, are harassing me.
Ask “Who or whom has been calling all day?” Answer your question substituting a pronoun like they or them: “They have been calling all day.”
If you answer they, the appropriate pronoun is who.
- That and which are often confused and are used incorrectly.
As a rule, use which if the clause is set off by commas and is not essential. Use that if the clause is not set off by commas (when it is crucial to the meaning of the sentence).
The movie, which was released two years behind schedule, was one of the few that were real box office hits this summer.
Correct the following sentences
1. Ms. Maley’s dog won first place at the show because she was well bred.
2. The military advisor was more conventional than his commander, but he was a superior strategist.
3. Hannah telephoned her friends in Taipei before going home for the night, which she had not done for weeks.
4. You must pay attention while fishing - otherwise you might lose it.
4. Pay Attention to Parallelism
Matching sentence constructions must be expressed in parallel form. Using the same construction several times in succession, in order to provide emphasis, can be very effective, but only if used sparingly.
Effective parallel construction:
As a leader, Lincoln inspired a nation to throw off the chains of slavery; as a
philosopher, he proclaimed the greatness of the little man; as a human being, he
served as a timeless example of humility.
Students sometimes make the mistake of using a parallel structure for dissimilar items.
Incorrect:
They are sturdy, attractive, and cost only a dollar each.
The phrase they are makes sense in front of sturdy and attractive, but does not fit in front of cost a dollar each.
Correct:
They are sturdy and attractive, and they cost only a dollar each.
Parallel constructions must be expressed in parallel grammatical form. This principle applies to any words that might begin each item in a series.
Incorrect:
All students should learn word processing, accounting, and how to program computers.
Correct:
All students should learn word processing, accounting and computer programming.
Either repeat the word or phrase before every element in a series or include it only before the first item.
Incorrect:
He invested his money in stocks, in real estate, and a home for retired performers.
Correct:
He invested his money in stocks, in real estate, and in a home for retired performers.
He invested his money in stocks, real estate, and a home for retired performers.
When proofreading, check that each item in the series agrees with the word or phrase that begins the series. In the example above, invested his money is the common phrase that each item shares. You would read: “He invested his money in real estate, (invested his money) in stocks, and (invested his money) in a home for retired performers.
Correct the faulty parallelism in the following sentences.
- This organization will not tolerate the consumption, trafficking, or promoting the use of drugs.
Rewrite: __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
- The dancer taught her understudy how to move, how to dress, and how to work with choreographers and deal with professional competition.
Rewrite: __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
- The students were ready, able and were quite determined to do a good job.
Rewrite: __________________________________________________________
- Don’t Shift Narrative Voice
Don’t refer to yourself excessively in your essays, unless the topic calls for it. Acceptable ways of referring to the narrator, instead of repeating the I, include the use of we and one. The method of self-reference you select is called the narrative voice of your essay. Remember, whichever narrative voice you choose to write in, you must take care to stick to that voice throughout your essay.
1. In my lifetime, I have seen many challenges to the principle of free speech.
2. We can see many challenges to the principle of free speech.
3. One must admit that there have been many challenges to the principle of free speech.
If you use I in the first sentence, for example, do not use we in a later sentence:
Incorrect:
In my lifetime, I have seen many challenges to the principle of free speech. We can see how a free society can get too complacent when free speech is taken for granted.
It is also wrong to shift from we to one:
Incorrect:
Just by following the news, you can see how our politicians will do anything to retain power. But one should not generalize about this tendency.
To correct these sentences in your proofreading, you need to change just one pronoun to agree with the other.
Rewrite the sentences below to give them a consistent point of view
1. I am disgusted with the waste we tolerate in this country. One cannot simply stand by without adding to such waste; living here makes you wasteful.
2. We all must take a stand against waste in this country; else how will one be able to look oneself in the mirror?
MORE PRACTICE WITH COMMON ERRORS:
Incomplete sentences
Fragments
Comma splice
Rambling/ run on
Unclear sentences
Misplaced /dangling modifier
Incomplete comparison
Wordy/empty sentences
Unacceptable sentences
Double negative
Shift in construction
Incomplete sentences
Fragments (a group of words that do not make a complete sentence)
Billy tossed the salad carelessly. Lettuce all over the table. (no verb)
We decided to have dinner at the Chinese restaurant. After the show ended.
Dad finally found a parking space. Near the big new supermarket.
Comma Splice (two groups of words on both sides of the comma that can stand alone, as complete sentences, but instead are “spliced” with a comma)
The clouds are gathering in the west, it will rain soon.
I’m crazy about dogs, Labradors are my favorites.
Options for correction: and / but / however / so / although / (;) semicolon / (.) period
Tip: if you wish to show a relationship between the two sentences use a semicolon (;)
Now try this one:
South Dakota is the geographical center of the USA, it is also the home of Mt. Rushmore, the famous mountain that has the likenesses of four US presidents carved into the granite.
Rambling/Run on
A rambling sentence is difficult to follow and because it contains too many ideas loosely connected by the word ‘and’.
Hannah auditioned for Grease, and she read a monologue from Romeo and Juliet, then sang a song from Phantom of the Opera. (omit unnecessary ‘and’; add punctuation)
There is a student that has lost a wallet that was left behind in the cafeteria and he cannot find it.
A Run on sentence occurs when two simple sentences are joined without punctuation/a connecting word.
I thought the ride would never end my eyes were shut and my fingers were going numb.
(End the first sentence with punctuation and begin next with capital letter OR join the sentences using a semicolon (;) between them or a conjunction (and, but, for, so, yet, nor, or, that etc).
Now try this:
An elephant’s trunk has 40,000 muscles that can be used for feeding, digging, bathing, finding food, or smelling danger the trunk can uproot a tree or pick up a pin.
Unclear sentences
Misplaced and dangling modifiers
A Modifier must be placed correctly, as close as possible to the word it modifies, so that the sentence is clear. Confusion results when words and groups of words are badly placed.
He noticed a large stain in the rug that was right in the center.
We have an assortment of combs for physically active people with unbreakable teeth.
I have some chocolate cake that Yoyo baked in my lunch bag.
While walking across the street, the bus hit her.
(Rearrange sentence and shift modifier to make your meaning clear)
Now correct these:
As he pulled his car up to the service window, it made a strange rattling sound.
Trying desperately to get under the fence, Paul’s mother called him.
Incomplete comparison
When a word or words are left out of a sentence that are necessary to show what is being compared to what.
I get along with Min Ah better than Eun Hye. (Do you mean you get along with Min Ah better than you get along with Eun Hye…or that you get along with Min Ah better than Eun Hye gets along with her?)
Wordy/Empty sentences
Wordy and empty sentences repeat an idea that has already been stated or use extra words that repeat other words or phrases unnecessarily.
At this point of time, I feel the study needs additional work before the sub-committee can recommend it to be resubmitted for further consideration. (wording that fills up more space than necessary)
Some teachers they don’t offer many choices. (double subject)
The unemployment rate in the city was high, and many people were out of work. (repetition of same idea)
Unacceptable sentences
Double negative
Avoid using two negatives to make a positive.
Ms. Doleman hasn’t got no money. (This says she does have money.)
Saori is not unwilling to help. (better to say: Saori is willing to help.)
She is certainly not unable to compete for the medal.
Shift in Construction
This is a change in the sentence structure in the middle of a sentence.
Shift in number:
Everyone going on the trip must bring their own lunch. (Shift in number of pronoun: one/ their)
When a person has the flu, they ought to stay at home.
If students do not understand the assignment, you should ask for help.
Either Jae Hyub or Dong Whi left their notebook in the library.
Try this:
Neither my mother nor my father have the answer to why tennis balls are fuzzy and golf balls have dimples.
Subject-Verb agreement
A singular subject must have a singular verb; a plural subject must have a plural verb.
The reporter rush to the scene of the crime. (singular subject and plural verb)
The CDS on the table is mine. (plural subject and singular verb)
Tip: When the subject word ends in ‘s’, the verb does not usually end in ‘s’.
Some collective nouns (crowd/group) will use a singular verb:
The team is losing and the crowd is getting ugly.
Some nouns that end in ‘s’ but are singular in meaning (measles/ economics/news) will use a plural verb: The scissors are lying on the table.
Try this:
The most famous example of Europe’s museums are the Louvre, built as a fortress in 1920.
Shift in verb tense
Tense indicates time; stick to one tense when you are writing.
Gloria drinks lots of juice and got plenty of rest. (change from present to past tense)
Every year the sophomores smirk and teased the “freshies”.
Tip: When writing the summary of a poem, story, novel or play use present tense as far as possible.
Mike is not eating the pizza.
Past perfect tense may be used for action that took place before the present.
He had eaten a burger earlier.
Shift in voice
Voice tells us if the subject is acting or being acted upon; whether it is active or passive
Mayuko is playing soccer again and many new skills are being learned by her.
This could be written as one of the following:
Mayuko is playing soccer again and is learning many new skills. (active voice throughout)
Soccer is being played again by Mayuko and many new skills are being learned by her. (passive)
The chairs were replaced neatly by Seng Keong. (passive)
Tip: Use the Active voice as much as possible to make your writing effective.
I will always remember my first visit to Boston.
(not: My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.)
Change the following to Active voice:
The ball was hit by Alex.
Some revisions will have to be made before you submit the assignment.
Parallel construction
Similar grammatical form must be used when several ideas are offered together.
You should check your spelling, grammar and punctuating. (should read ‘punctuation’)
In the competition there was bowling, swimming and dance.
MORE PRACTICE WITH VERB TENSE
Improper Shift in Verb Tense
Rule: Use the same tense to express two or more actions that occur at the same time.
[The action in any one sentence or paragraph usually takes place in the same time period.]
Example:
The capsule approaches the moon, and then it landed. WRONG
The capsule approached the moon and then it landed. CORRECT
………………………………………………………………………
Replace the incorrect verb (underlined) with the correct one so that there is no improper shift of tense in your sentence.
Sentences:
- By the time we arrived in Harbin, it had begun to snow and the earlier rain begins ……………. to freeze on the streets.
- Saori broke one string on her violin but plays ……………. the rest of the concerto without it.
- The nurse will take your blood and sending ……………… it to a lab for analysis.
- Seneca sat down in the student lounge and is waiting ………………… for Yoyo to join her.
- At the end of its life, a tree falls to the forest floor and is providing ………………………. a habitat for animals.
- The computer file had been sent by modem but is destroyed …………………… during transmission.
- The cross is a symbol of Christianity, the crescent was ………… a symbol of Islam and the Star of David is a symbol of Judaism.
- How had this all began ……………..?
Revise the following paragraph, correcting verbs that are in the wrong tense.
Katherine Davalos Ortega is born in 1934 in Tularosa, New Mexico, and worked in her family’s restaurant and other businesses since she has been a small child. Early in life she is choosing a teaching career, but she is told that being Hispanic might prevent her from got a teaching position. As a result, she decided to pursue a business career instead, and by 1975, she has become the first woman president of a California bank. In recognition of her professional abilities, Ms. Ortega was nominated by President Reagan to be Treasurer of the United States and is sworn in on October 3, 1983. Her signature may be familiar to you, because it is appearing on more than twenty billion dollar bills and other types of U.S. currency.
Still Confused about Verb Tenses?
Consider the difference in meaning between each of the sentences in the
following pairs:
- I will start working by this afternoon.
(expresses an action that will occur in the future)
I will have started working by this afternoon.
(expresses an action that will be completed before some future event takes place)
- She lived in Shanghai for four years.
(expresses an action that occurred in the past but did not continue into the present)
She has lived in Shanghai for four years.
(expresses an action that occurred in the past and continues into the present)
Do not change needlessly from one tense to another:
- Andrew raised his binoculars and sees a large bear as it raced back to the woods.
(Confused tenses: all the verbs refer to actions that happened at about the same time. However, the verbs are a mixture of past and present tenses.)
Andrew raised his binoculars and saw a large bear as it raced back to the woods.
(Correct: all the verbs are in past tense.)
or
Andrew raises his binoculars and sees a large bear as it races back to the woods.
(Correct: all the verbs are in the present tense.)
Now write in the correct form of the verb which is given before each of the sentences below:
ride Mike and Stephen have _______ their bikes fifty km. today.
write I read the letters that my grandfather ______ to my grandmother in 1930.
take Mom, I know you have ________ us shopping to the mall already this
weekend, but please take us out once again.
see Billy soon _______ why the old house had sold so cheaply.
fall All that winter day the snow _______, covering everything.
drink The puppy has _______ most of its water.
speak The Principal _______ about responsible behavior within the school grounds.
SO…
REMEMBER
“It’s not wise to violate the rules until you know how to observe them.” ~ T. S. Eliot
A Quick Review of Common Errors
1. Comma splice/ fragments/Run-on Sentences
- The crowd had been waiting in the sun for two hours, many were beginning to show their impatience.
- Slipping down the muddy bank and plopping into the river.
2. Subject-Verb & Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
- The most popular breed of dogs in the US are the Labrador.
- One of the boats are missing their oars.
3. Pronoun case: subject or object?
- My brother and me went to the store.
4. Verb Tense progression
- By next October the flock of geese flies South.
5. Verb Tense Consistency
- I started smoking at fourteen and it results in cancer.
6. Parallelism
- In my hometown people pass the time riding horses, playing cricket and at chess games.
7. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
- Trying desperately to get under the fence, Paul’s mother called him.
8. Frequently confused words
- My three year old sister reads already. She is all ready to begin school.
- Mark’s giggle affected the teacher. The effect of the pinch was a sore leg.
Words Often Confused
The following pairs of words are not synonyms; one cannot be used in place of the other.
accept, except
accept: (verb) to receive
except: (preposition) excluding
(verb) to leave out
EXAMPLES: Did you accept the gift?
We were busy every evening except Monday. (preposition)
Everybody except me knew the answer. (verb)
all right, (not) alright
‘alright’ may be seen in some written material, but it is not the preferred form; the preferred form is ‘all right’.
EXAMPLES: Everything is all right now.
The thunderstorm is over; it is all right to go outside now.
affect, effect
affect:(verb) to influence, to impress
effect: (noun) the result (of an action)
EXAMPLES: Try not to let unkind remarks affect you.
The loss of the tennis match will affect Laura’s confidence.
The effect of the storm was evident the next day.
fewer, less (have very different uses in a sentence)
fewer: tells ‘how many’, used before a plural noun, refers to things you cannot count
less: tells ‘how much’, used before a singular noun, refers to the degree/size/amount of something that cannot be counted (space, hair)
EXAMPLE: I worked fewer hours this week than last week.
I worked less time this week than last week.
They had less trouble at the dance this year.
who, whom (pronouns)
who: is usually used as the subject of a verb
whom: is usually used as an object of a verb
EXAMPLES: Who plays the part of Hitler in the play? (Who is the subject of the verb plays)
For whom is he baking the pita bread? (object)
With whom are you going to the dance? (object)
Whom usually follows prepositions like ‘to’, ‘for’, ‘with’.
of
of is a preposition.
Do not use of in place of have after verbs such as should, could, would, might, must, and ought (to):
EXAMPLES: You could have told me that you were unwell. (correct)
You could of told me that you were unwell. (incorrect)
If I had known the party was casual, I wouldn’t have worn this dressy outfit. (correct)
If I had known that the party was casual, I wouldn’t of worn this dressy outfit. (incorrect)
or, nor
Use or with either; use nor with neither
EXAMPLES: Either Celia or Gloria will host the party.
Neither Alan nor Don has been absent this quarter.
good,well/ bad, badly
good/bad: these are adjectives and modify a noun.
Do not use to modify a verb; instead use well/badly
well/badly: these are adverbs (refer to doing something capably or incapably)
or adjectives ( refer to health or a satisfactory/unsatisfactory condition.)
EXAMPLES: They skate good. (incorrect) They skate well. (correct)
Once the problem was corrected, all was well.
He hated being called the bad apple. (used as adjective)
She played badly and struck out three times. (used as adverb)
in, into
in: means within/already inside
They waited in the hospital lounge.
into: implies moving to the inside
They walked into the house.
contraction errors: your, you’re/ its, it’s/ there, they’re, their/ whose/who’s
To ensure that you are using the correct term, break the contraction and see if it makes sense in the sentence.
EXAMPLE: Its fur is brown and tan. OR It’s fur is brown and tan.
It is fur is brown and tan. (incorrect)
Therefore: ‘its’ is the correct form in this sentence: Its fur is brown and tan.
Whose hat is on the rack? OR Who’s hat is on the rack?
Who is hat is on the rack. (incorrect)
Therefore: ‘whose’ is the correct form in this sentence: Whose hat is on the rack.
he, she, they: unnecessary pronouns, should not be used after a noun.
EXAMPLES: My father he is working in Hong Kong. (incorrect)
My father is working in Hong Kong. (correct)
double negatives: can’t hardly/can’t scarcely
no/none/nothing ( never use with another negative)
EXAMPLES: You can’t hardly see ten feet in this fog. (incorrect)
You can hardly see ten feet in this fog. (correct)
There isn’t no reason to be nervous. (incorrect)
There is no reason to be nervous.
off, off of: often used instead of just ‘off’
EXAMPLES: Sandy moved the box off of the table. (incorrect)
Sandy moved the box off the table. (correct)
inside of, outside of: use just ‘outside’, ‘inside’ without ‘of’
EXAMPLES: Outside of the building was a public garden. (incorrect)
Outside the building was a public garden. (correct)